Geography and Time

The Joseon Dynasty, (sometimes called the Hermit Kingdom) was a kingdom that existed on what is now the whole of the Korean Peninsula from 1392-1910 CE. It was a time of great change in Korea; one of innovation, and invasion. One of technology, and treachery. One of great social change, and grinding conservatism. In short, the Joseon Dynasty was many of the things that now define our modern age, and we can learn much though its careful analysis. In this series of posts I hope simply to touch on some of the aspects which made Korea at this time so unique in the hopes that those interested will use the information here as a springboard to their own studies; not simply of the Joseon Dynasty, but of all cultures.

The Location of the Joseon Dynasty in the world (Fredericks, R. 2014)

The provinces of the Joseon Dynasty (Korea.net, 2014)

Provinces of the Joseon Dynasty (Fredericks, 2014)

Joseon Dynasty Timeline with General Timeline

Joseon Dynasty Timeline		General Timeline
Date	Event	Date	Event
1392 CE	The Joseon Dynasty forms after general Yi Songgye overthrows the Mongol Goryeo king Kongyang, said to be the worst king in Korea’s history, installs a new king on the throne, (King Gongyang) who does not wish to be king, grants his wish of being removed from power, and becomes king himself.	1412-1431 CE	Life of Joan of Arc.
1419-1450 CE	Reign of King Sejong, the most respected person in Korean history.	1453 CE	Constantinople is taken over by the Ottomans under Sultan Muhammed II.
1441 CE	Cheugugi (rain gauge) is invented by Jang Yong-Sil.	1492 CE	The Alhambra, (the last Moorish fortress in Spain) falls to the Spanish. Christopher Columbus sets sail for the Americas.
1443 CE	Hangul is invented by King Sejong and his wise men. It will be released to the general public 3 years later.	1519-1521 CE	A group of 500 Spanish soldiers under Hernan Cortez destroy the Aztec Empire.
April 1592-1598 CE	The Imjin war. (Japan against Joseon Dynasty Korea and Ming China) The Japanese attempt to invade Korea, and through extension China, (really their main goal was invading China, but they had to go through Joseon Dynasty Korea to get there) with 200,000 troops. The Koreans suffer heavy losses at first, and it seems as though the Japanese will take over the entire country, until the brilliant admiral Yi Sun-sin rekindles an old invention that had never gotten off the ground in more peaceful times and invents the first operational armoured warships, called Kobukson, (Turtle Ship) and uses them with existing ships to great effect in several battles, cutting off the Japanese supply lines. Ming China also sends about 100,000 troops to help the relatively unorganized 60,000 Korean troops defending their homeland. (The Joseon Dynasty was not prepared for this war at all) The Japanese are driven back; until 1597 when they attempt a second invasion, but are again defeated. On their way off of the Korean peninsula the remaining Japanese troops kidnap many smart people, and steel many books to take back to Japan as they valued the Korean’s knowledge. The Ming Chinese troops who had been so helpful in beating back the Japanese now returned to Ming China, pillaging the Korean countryside as they went. The war officially ends with the death of the leader of Japan Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Devastation that Joseon Dynasty Korea received in this war has been compared to affected areas in a world war.	1564-1616 CE	Life of William Shakespeare.
1637 CE	After numerous invasions by the Manchu tribe to the North of the Korean peninsula, Joseon became a vassal state of the Manchu, who later took over Ming China and formed the Qing Dynasty. Joseon decides it has had enouth of the outside world, which for quite some time has only seemed to bring war and suffering to them, The dynasty closes its borders to the rest of the world and becomes the Hermit Kingdom.	1638-1715 CE	Life of Louis XIV. (The sun king)
1866-1882 CE	Various nations attempt to make diplomatic contact with the Joseon Dynasty. At first peacefully, then after repeated refusals on the part of the Joseon government, militarily. All fail until Japan forces Korea to open 3 of its ports to Japanese trade.	1775 CE	The American Revolution begins.
1882 CE	Joseon opens its borders to the rest of the world and makes contact with many Western countries, partially to try and counter the increasing economic and political influence Japan has been exerting over Korea.	May 24th 1819-January 22ed 1901	Life of Queen Victoria.
1882-September 1905 CE	Power struggle after power struggle by the nations surrounding Joseon to gain influence in the Joseon government. Many short wars, none of which were started by the Joseon Dynasty or even involved Joseon dynasty Korea militarily, take place on the peninsula. Several rebellions take place, as well as a drought followed by a flood and people start to emigrate from the country. (Something that almost never happened as people who lived in Joseon generally greatly valued living where they did despite the wars which occasionally devastated the region) The power struggles finally came to an end when Japan won the Russo-Japanese war, (1904-1905) and unofficially took control of the Joseon Government.	1867 CE	Canada becomes a country.
1910 CE	Japan officially takes over the Joseon, Emperor Yung-hui, (Joseon switched from having Kings to having emperors in 1897) is forced to abdicate and the Joseon Dynasty comes to an end.	1914 CE	World War I begins.

King Sejong (ARIRANG, 2013)

Amiral Yi Sun-sin (ARIRANG, 2013)

Social Structure

There was a definite social structure in Korea during the Joseon Dynasty with the king, on top and cheomin (low born/despised people) at the bottom, with a patriarchal attitude throughout society. There were a few who chose not to let society dictate how they lived however.

Traditionally, a person could Increase their rank in society through education, but not by becoming wealthy or serving in the military

Joseon Society was divided into 5 basic levels: cheomin, sangmin, chungin, yangban, and the king and royal family. Sangmin and chungin could raise their social status through education. (Fredericks, 2014)

At the top of society was the king who had ultimate say in matters, followed by the other members of the royal family. (The Yi family) All were expected to follow the rules of court extricate at all times.

The late Joseon Royal Family (or at least part of it) (Rddadger, 2009)

The next level down was occupied by the yangban, (aristocrats) who worked mainly as civil officials, military officials, scholars, and other high level positions. The members this prestigious group were usually wealthy, and wielded quite a bit of power, even at at the beginning of the dynasty, which only multiplied in Joseon’s later years until they would eventually rival the king in terms of influence and would act in a similar way to how the feudal lords of Europe and Japan had operated. (They could be oppressive to the lower classes) They were educated landowners, who had completed an examination to gain their rank, (also giving their family status as yangban, all the way to seventh cousins) (which was semi-hierarchal once achieved. (Lasted 3 generations without another member of the family passing an examination) exempting them from military service, and allowing them to collect taxes from their tenants, (both for themselves, and for the government) but were not subject to taxation themselves.

Male Yangban in their distinctive robes with horsehair hat (KoreanHistory.info, n.d.)

The next level down was occupied by the chungin (middle people) who worked as: accountants, administrators, artists, astronomers, calligraphers, doctors, de facto rulers in their local area, interpreters, jurists, local magistrates, professional military officers, translators and other occupations. This group also included the illegitimate children of yangban and concubines, and could sometimes be oppressive to the lower classes, and they were essentially yangban who had not completed the examinations necessary to gain the title and status of yangban. They were exempted from military service and taxes.

Chunggin at home (The Talking Cupboard, 2012)

The next level down was occupied by the sangmin (common people) who worked as: craftsmen, farmers, fishermen, laborers, merchants, and peasants (tenant farmers) among other occupations and comprised approximately 75% of the population During the Joseon Dynasty, though they did not have family names. They were subject to military draft and often endured heavy taxes, (often as much as 50% of their income) causing many to be poor financially and making it very difficult for them to rise in society through education. They were seen as “clean” by the upper classes. 

Sangmin craftsman (The Independent, 2011)

The bottom level was occupied by the cheomin (low born/despised people) who worked as: acrobats, actors, Buddhist monks/nuns, butchers, concubines, executioners, exorcists, gisaeng, (female entertainers who were trained in dance, poetry, and singing) grave diggers, hunters, jail keepers, magicians, metalworkers, mudang, (shamans) nobi, (slaves) professional mourners, servants, shoemakers, and tanners among other occupations, as well as beggars, and nomads were not allowed to live inside towns, or take examinations to improve their status, and did not have family names. Many nobi were people who were being punished for crimes, or not paying depts., but some people became slaves voluntarily in order to escape poverty, and still others were part of slave families which had been owned the upper classes for generations.  Many of these generational nobi went out into the mountains and formed bandit groups. This group was considered “unclean” and often discriminated against by the upper classes. They were exempted from military service, and taxes.

A cheomin butcher (The Talking Cupboard, 2012)

A cheomin nobi (slave) (note the identifying tattoo on the right cheek) (The Talking Cupboard, 2012)

Norms/Values

Norms and values in the Joseon Dynasty were heavily influenced by Confucianism putting a great emphasise on having a structured, hierarchal society in which order, (in theory) would thrive. Also partially as a result of Confucianism were the two values which defined the Joseon Dynasty more than any others: education and family. As with most aspects of the society, Values seem to have been placed in a hierarchical order of importance.

This chart illustrates those values

Primary values (very highly valued)	Secondary values (highly valued)	Tertiary values (valued)	Quaternary values (drifting value)
.Education (passing exams, studying hard, teachers .Family (ancestors, elders, family togetherness, hyo, (filial piety) genealogy)	.Art .Hard work .Religion	.Being respectful .Cleanliness .Good news .Good quality of life .Guests .Nature .Patriotism .Peace .Politeness .Saving Money .The Joseon Dynasty (home) .Things of great age .Unity	.Conformity (less common at the beginning of the dynasty, more common in the middle, mixed at the end) .Individuality/personal accomplishments (More common at the beginning of the dynasty, less common in the middle, mixed at the end

One of the most important of these values was hyo, (filial piety) which emphasized respect for one’s parents and placed great emphasis on children putting their parents, (and elders) first and working to be the best people they could be.

A child bowing to his family as a sign of hyo (filial piety) (Chung, 2012)

This video shows some of the basics of hyo (ARIANG, 2013)

Family

Family was considered to be very important during the Joseon Dynasty and most families could trace their lineages back for many generations, and families were considered to be more of a whole and less the sum of its parts. Family not only played the role of supporting and nurturing children and the elderly, (most families were extended) a person’s family status very much determined their place in society. Cheomin and sangmin did not receive family names.

An example of an extended family from the Joseon Dynasty (Chung, 2012)

 Elders were to be treated with great respect often leading to extended families as homes for elders were very uncommon during the Joseon Dynasty. A special ceremony called hwangap was held for an elder who had reached the age of 60, which was basically a birthday party on a grand scale that the family of the elder often spent as much as they could afford (sometimes more) on. (Very few people lived to the age of 60 during the Joseon Dynasty) After this ceremony the elder would be allowed to wear special clothing that designated them as an elder, and someone to be treated with the utmost respect. this deep reverence and respect extended even after a person died and the graves of parents, grandparents, great grandparents, etc. were lovingly tended to by their dependents.  

Elders (modern re-enactment of an outdoor civil service examination) (Sloper, 2013)

The father or oldest male was considered to be the head of the household and made the main decisions for the family. They were the person whose income supported the rest of the family, and traditionally considered to be the stern parent.

Father (please disregard the camera equipment) (AsianWiki, 2014)

Mother (Confucianism considered the home the domain of most women) (HomestayKorea, 2013)

Children were greatly valued (especially first born males) and were expected to be respectful to their parents through following the principles of hyo (filial piety) which consisted not just of manners, but also supporting parents in their old age, and working to make themselves the best people they could be.

Children carrying water on their heads (Ah-young, 2008)

Education

Though formal education in the Joseon Dynasty was limited to those who could afford it, this dynasty is famous for the invention of the Hangul alphabet under king Sejong (1419-1450) which revolutionized the written word in the country due to its simplicity and ease of learning, making the Joseon Dynasty a land of near universal literacy.

The formal education system was heavily based on the Chinese model at the time, (even using Chinese characters as the country’s official writing system) (main subjects studied included: Chinese culture, Chinese history, Chinese literature, geography, history, literature, mathematics, and science) which operated both public and private schools, (neither free, or open to girls) and focused almost entirely on the results of end of term examinations. In fact, it was through passing very difficult examinations (usually civil service or military) that the yangban traditionally gained their status. Education was not free, (in fact many families saved for years in the hope of sending their children to school) and because of this, the poorer lower classes had a lot of trouble moving up in society, and in turn their low status in society prevented them from being able to earn enough money to send their children to school for the most part; creating a vicious cycle that kept those who could not afford education down, and boosted those who could, up.

A Joseon classroom (reconstruction) (Awaiting A Name, 2007)

Hangul (Alphabet) on the other hand was the alphabet of the people. Invented in 1443 under king Sejong, and widely distributed to the public in 1446, at the time called Hunminjeongeum. (Proper phonetic system to educate the people). This alphabet consisting of 24 basic symbols based on the shape of the mouth when pronouncing the syllable they represent, and was by far easier to learn than Chinese characters, which consist of tens of thousands of symbols. In fact Hangul has been called the world’s most logical alphabet, and is credited with being the easiest to learn. King Sejong is credited with claiming that Hangul was so easy to learn that a fool could learn hangul in as little as 10 days while a wise person could become literate in it in only a few hours.

The Periodic Table of Hangul (detailing the letters of hangul and some basic sound combinations) (Hurk, 2011).

This video details a bit of the history of hangul and some of its influence on the modern world. (Estudando Hapkido - 學習合氣道 – 학습합기도, 2012)

Clothes

The clothing worn by the people of the Joseon Dynasty was known as hanbok. And varied slightly in colour, material, and design among the different social classes with the garments of the rich tending to be made of luxurious materials such as silk and dyed in extravagant colours and usually consisting of robes of some sort, while the garments of the poor tended to be made of more affordable materials, (dye was an expensive commodity) such as hemp or ramie, were almost always white and were more practical for tasks that required physical labour.  In both cases clothing was lightweight and comfortable to wear incorporating a sense of modesty. Wooden shoes or slippers were also worn.

Men usually wore a loose shirt, (sometimes with an overcoat) trousers that were tight at the ankles and waist, but baggy in the middle, stockings, and a hat. (if they were married)

Women usually wore a high-waited dress and light jacket-style shirt, as well as stockings and various adornments.

Various forms of hanbok worn by different social classes are detailed in this video (Chelynlee, 2013)

Food

Joseon cuisine has been described as one of the world’s healthiest and is quite unique in that in its later years it was heavily influenced by the Donguibogam (The principles and practices of Eastern medicine) a compilation of 240 medical encyclopaedias put together by Heo Jun, (1539-1615, the royal physician to King Seonjo. (R.1567-1608)) in 1613. It makes ample use of vegetables and grains, with relatively little fruit, very little meat, and virtually no dairy. Much effort appears to have been put into wasting as little as possible. Rice was by the staple crop, and commonly eaten with all meals, usually with a soup or stew. The Joseon Dynasty was quite unique in that they had another staple food as well: kimchi. (A spiced, fermented vegetable preserve usually made with cabbage or cucumbers which was very widely popular and eaten by all members of society) Cooking methods were quite varied and included: boiling, deep-frying, grilling, pan-frying, par-boiling, steaming, and stir-frying, among others. Side dishes were very common (3-12 with the average meal) and eaten by all citizens, their social class and wealth determining the number and variety they had. People ate together using chopsticks and spoons, but had their own separate small tables, and talking during a meal was considered rude. The royal family held banquets which could sometimes take months to plan and were very fancy occasions.

The following chart outlines a few types of food eaten in the Joseon Dynasty

Commonly Eaten Foods in the Joseon Dynasty
Grains	Fruit and vegetables	Meat and alternatives	Spices and seasonings
.Barley .Buckwheat .Millet .Rice .Sesame	.Apples .Bamboo shoots .Berries .Bok Choy .Carrots .Chicory .Chinese cabbage .Chinese peppers .Cucumbers .Garlic .Jujubes (Korean dates) .Lettuce .Onions .Pears .Perilla (leafy green) .Persimmons (like apples, but become very tart when overripe) .Radishes .Red hot peppers .Seaweed (various types) .Sesame (leafy green) .Spinach .Turnip .Wild-greens (Chinese bellflowers, chwinamul, (aster scaber) Gosari, (Bracken Ferns) others) .Zucchini	.Abalones (a kind of shellfish) .Acorns .Beans .Bean sprouts .Beef (least common meat eaten) .Chestnuts .Chicken .Clams .Crab .Dog .Eggs .Fish (anchovy, flounder, salmon, ray fish, tuna, others) (most common meat eaten) .Ginkgo nuts .Insects (silkworms, others) .Mung beans .Mushrooms .Octopus .Oysters .Pine nuts .Pork .Red beans .Shrimp .Snake .Soybeans .Squid .Walnuts	.Bean paste (fermented and unfermented) .Chives .Cinnamon .Cockscomb .Fermented seafood .Garlic .Ginger .Ginsing .Green onions .Honey .Kimchi (when used as a condiment) .Mustard .Mustard leaf .Parsley .Red pepper paste .Rice vinegar .Rice wine .Salt .Seaweed .Sesame oil .Sesame seeds .Soy bean sauce .Sugar (not as common as honey) .Tea .Water dropwort

Preserving food was considered very important in the Joseon Dynasty because with the numerous wars and famines the land was subjected to over the centuries; people never knew whether they would be able to reap another harvest before their food supplies ran out, and so it was considered important to make what was available last as long as possible. The most famous example of which definitely being kimchi. This famous fermented food of which there were about 9 main varieties and numerous sub-varieties, was well complimented with a whole host of other preserves, including: fermented seafood, buguk, (dried vegetables and seaweed) po, (jerky made from beef or fish) and twigak. (deep-fried seaweed or perilla leaves with vegetable stems)

This video shows a simple recipe for kimchi (TheTasteOfKorea, 2010)

Some examples of Foods from the Joseon Dynasty follow

Bibimbap (Assorted rice) (Harvey, 2014)

Bundaegi (Silkworms) (Kim, 2014)

Darkbal (Chicken Feet) (Kim, 2014)

Namul (Seasoned Vegetables) (Korea Tourism Organization, n.d.)

Sikhye (sweet rice punch). King Gojong (R. 1863-1907) was particularly fond of this non-alcoholic beverage. (Korea Tourism Organization, n.d.)

Ssam jang (a leaf wrap that originated in Korean cuisine) (Park, 2009)

Tteokbokki (cylindrical rice cakes in hot pepper sauce) (Kim,2014)

Tteok (rice cakes) in foreground with Hangwa (sweet dishes) in the background (Korea Tourism Organization, n.d.)

Some examples of table settings and meal arrangements during the Joseon Dynasty follow

The table setting for a common person (Korea Tourism Organization, n.d.)

The table setting for a meal by the royal family (Korea Tourism Organization, n.d.)

Modern re-enactment of a royal banquet (Korea Tourism Organization, n.d.)

Homes

Joseon homes were known as hanok and were very distinctive in that they were essentially the same relative size, but made from different materials depending on the social class of the person who owns the house. In either case, homes followed the principles of fung  sui and were designed to be cozy and comfortable, and though they could be a bit crowded, (often 6 or 7 people living in a small 3 room house) they provided a relatively high standard of living and general efficiency across Joseon society.

 There was a great variety in the material hanok were made of, but often these houses were constructed of a pine frame, (put together through wood joinery) with loess, (a well insulating type of clay) walls, and had either a straw or tile roof (though wooden shingles were also used where locally available). They were usually L or U shaped in the southern part of the country and more square or somewhat circular in the northern part of the country though this was not always the case, and often faced towards a large central courtyard, (often containing many gardens) around which many members of an extended family lived; sharing the use of a common well. (There was no running water)

Examples of various hanok styles (Hyewon, 2011)

A Joseon hanok village (Chrystal G, 2012)

Undol (in-floor heating) is probably one of the most distinctive features of Joseon homes. It consisted of a smoke-based underfloor heating system that was often attached to the wood burning-oven, (or furnace made specifically for undol) and ran under 1 or more rooms before allowing smoke to escape through a freestanding chimney.

Undol heading system cross section (Yujinishuge, 2010)

Furniture was suited to the heated floors and was made to be low to the floor, consisting items such as: dividing screens, low tables, mats, pillows, shelves, and yo. (Foldable mats that were used as bedding during the Joseon dynasty which could be set up at night in a room with undol heating, usually a multipurpose living room (there were no rooms specified as bedrooms) other useful items included: abacuses, millstones, and water buckets among other things

Examples of Joseon furniture. (Ah-young, 2011)

Changes to Joseon Culture

Social Structure: The social structure changed slightly over the course of the Joseon Dynasty then quite a bit in its later years.

Social Changes in the Joseon Dynasty Timeline
Date	Event
1392-1600s	Women gradually lose the near equal status to men they had enjoyed under the Buddhist influenced Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) with the adoption of neo-Confucianism at the beginning of the dynasty. They lose their: economic independence, freedom of divorce, (women could not very easily divorce their husbands, but husbands could divorce wives on seven different principles: adultery, disobedience to parents-in-law, failure to have children, hereditary disease, jealousy, talkativeness, and theft) freedom of marriage, freedom of movement, (eventually girls would not be allowed to leave the house without a male attendant after the age of 7) freedom of   remarriage, (severely discouraged by the new social stigma that had risen against divorced women, and a law enacted in 1477 which said a divorced woman’s sons could not work in a public service (high ranking)right to inherit property, right to be punished for their own crimes, societal tolerance to having lovers. (the new punishment for adultery was execution)
1392-1897	The number of slaves in the Joseon Dynasty gradually decrease over the years until slavery is officially abolished in 1897.
Early 1600s	The Joseon government begins to sell honorary positions in office as yangban to raise funds after the very financially straining Imjin war (1592-1598) in which Korea was barely able to resist being taken over by Japan. These purchased positions allow people to rise socially through wealth rather than education for the first time in the Dynasty’s history. From now on, the upper classes would be a mixture of those who passed the examinations, and those who bought their way in.
Latter 1600s	The examinations to become a yangban are made more costly and difficult as there are now more yangban than there are positions for them and the existing yangban start to become a hierarchal class rather than simply one earned through education and/or wealth.
Early 1700s	The Joseon Dynasty’s first major counter culture, Silhak (practical learning) which sought to change the social structure of the Joseon dynasty by promoting the acceptance of ways of life other than those taught by Confucianism, a fair redistribution of land, providing equal opportunity in education, getting people into government based on talent and merit rather than hierarchy (as was largely the case by this point) loosening the rigidness of the social structure in general, and promoting western learning, (extremely limited contact had been made with the westerners through shipwrecked sailors)  began to emerge as a philosophy. It would remain fairly limited for a few decades.
Late 1700s	Silhak gains popularity with a wider audience, especially after several books containing new ideas from the West were brought back to Korea with returning Joseon envoys to Beijing.
1800s onwards	the yangban now have virtual control of the country in an unofficial feudal style system in which each powerful yangban family has almost total say in how they run their local area and the king can do little about it. The lower classes were treated like feudal peasants as the yangban imposed often far too steep taxes and charged farmers for using “their” land.
1800s onwards	The sangmin and cheomin began to purchase fake yangban genealogies as a way to raise their status, and as a way to avoid being drafted into the military.
1860s onward	Tonghak, (Eastern learning) Joseon’s second major counter culture, emerges through the teachings of Ch’oe Cheu and is a merging of Korea’s 3 major religions: Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shamanism with parts of the fairly newly introduced religion of Christianity. It sought to change the established social structure by writing the wrongs that the powerful in society had created, and to provide more rights and freedoms to those worst off in society. (abolishing slavery, and allowing widows to remarry, among other goals)
1894	The yangban class is abolished, slightly closing the divide between the highest class and the lowest

Norms and values: Cultural norms and values shifted quite a bit during the Joseon Dynasty, from a Buddhist influenced nation of relative equality, to a neo-confusion dominated nation of strict hierarchy, then to somewhere in-between with the introduction of silhak, tonghak and numerous other ideas.

Family: With the adoption of neo-Confucianism at the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty Polygamy was made illegal in 1413, but not having concubines, which many yangban did. The resulting children of women other than the official wife were known as soja and considered illegitimate, ending up as outcasts in society. As the dynasty went on, men, particularly the eldest male, gained considerable power in the family while women and males who were not the first born, lost power in the family.

Education: The formal Joseon education system remained relatively unchanged until fairly late in the dynasty, when the first school for girls was opened in 1886 by Marry F. Scranton in the capital city of Hanseong. (Seoul) Further changes came in 1902 when the first modern schools opened, which allowed both boys and girls of any social class to attend.

Hangul was an education revolution in and of itself as before its distribution in 1446, the Joseon Dynasty used Chinese characters for writing, (A system consisting of 10s of thousands of symbols) which was difficult to learn, meaning few people could read and write. Hangul (consisting of 24 symbols) was easy to learn, (it could be learned in a matter of hours in fact) making literacy nearly universal.

Clothes: Clothing was generally less formal at the beginning of the Joseon Dynasty, and became more formal over time, with certain colours and/or materials being specifically designated for the various social classes. Some Western clothing also started to be worn by a few members of the upper classes late in the dynasty. Very late in the Joseon Dynasty a number of women in the lower classes began to bare their breast in public as a sign of their discontent with the way things were.

Food: The writing of Donguibogam (The principles and practices of Eastern medicine) by Heo Jun in 1613 made the already quite healthy Korean cuisine even healthier. The evolution of Kimchi was another major gastronomic change over the course of the Joseon Dynasty. At the beginning of the dynasty it was little more than salted cabbage with garlic, ginger, and Chinese peppers to add flavour. When spicy red peppers were introduced with the Japanese invasion of 1592 in the Imjin war (1592-1598) kimchi received its distinctive red colour and spicy flavour. The next big change in Kimchi came in about 1900, when baechu kimchi (whole cabbage kimchi) was first made. Despite its late appearance, it would quickly become a favourite variety of Kimchi in the Joseon Dynasty and is now the most famous of all varieties of kimchi

Homes: The way homes were built remained relatively unchanged throughout the Joseon Dynasty, but the furniture within them did gain more variety from roughly the 1850s onwards as Western furniture styles were adopted alongside more traditional styles and seem to have been considered as much of an exotic curiosity in Korea as Joseon furniture was in the west.